Different Eating Customs and the Value of Community between
Abstract
this paper analyzes the different value of community between the west and China by comparing the different eating customs and practices of the two cultures and then tries to probe into the core of the them in terms of the relation between individual and community. The different value of community can concluded as followed: Chinese culture values collectiveness most, while western culture believes in individualism.
Key words：eating customs; value of community; cultural differences
摘要
本文通过对比对比中西方不同的用餐方式，对中西方群体观念的差异进行分析，并试图探索基于个人和集体关系的群体观念的核心。中国文化崇尚集体主义，而西方文化则信奉个体主义。
关键词：用餐方式；群体观念；文化差异
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Introduction
All Chinese are familiar with the ancient proverb “Food is the paramount(最重要的) necessity of the people.” Coincidentally（碰巧）, there is a equivalent （相同的）in the west—— “Bread is the stall of life.” The catering（酒席） culture is an important part of human civilization, which is age-honored（年龄、尊敬） and diversified（多样化）. Just as there are remote（远） distance between the west and China geographically（地理）, there are distinctive（特殊的） features in their dietary（饮食的） practices 习惯. The different eating customs and practices, however, are not merely只是 a manifestation表现 of the two different cultures. Instead, they reflect the deeper cultural value of two cultures, to be more specific特殊的明确的, the value of community团体. Studying this subject can give us a better understanding of the philosophical哲学，冷静 reason for the diversification多样化 of western and Chinese catering酒席 cultures.
1.The differences in the western and Chinese eating customs and practices
1.1 Different Ways of Serving the Food
When having meals, Chinese people sit around the table and share the food in the same plate. No matter it is a dinner of an ordinary family or a formal banquet, Chinese would always share the dishes regardless of gender, age and social status. In fact, this practice can be traced back to the protohistory age when Chinese began to offer the sacrifice to gods. The sacrifices couldn’t be eaten by gods, so our ancestors shared the food after the fete. This was initially called the “totem meal”. The totem represented the animal people ate most frequently, therefore people believed the animal to be their forebear, because their life came from and
were sustained by it. Of course, people couldn’t consume their animal of totem at their own will, yet they could eat it on some special occasions. Since people of the same clan had the same forebear, everyone possessed the so called “flesh-and-flood relationship” with it and should be given his share of the flesh of the animal. It is the primitive practice of the Chinese way of sharing food in the same plate. By sharing the food together, people also shared the identity of the same community. The most severe punishment was to prohibit someone from taking part in the totem meal, which meant that he or she was exiled from the clan. The totem meal later developed into the banquet held after the fete in Shang Dynasty, then into daily Chinese food-sharing customs in Tang Dynasty.
At the beginning, the westerners shared food in the same plate. They even used hands and dipped their fingers into the gravy, but they had to wash their hands in front of the others before the meal in order to show their respects toward others. However, the table manners started to change dramatically since the Renaissance. In this era of revival of humanism and human dignity, the Renaissance scholars not only tried to break the shackles from the Catholic Church and till the garden of art, but also advocated the reform of etiquette. In the book On Civility in Children, Erasmus1 prescribed a set of table manners, which the loyal members should obey so as to respect others dining with them. The separate eating practice we are familiar with finally came into being in the 17th century. The westerner thought it was necessary to eat separately for the sake of sanitation and respect for individual dignity. In this eating practice, people can order their own food, enjoy personal freedom and give every person the equal sense of respect.
1.2 Different Tableware
There are many stories about the invention of the chopsticks, but it is unlikely for us find out the real one. Legend has that Dayu, a king of Xiang Dynasty, already used chopsticks when eating. The Chinese American Nobel Prize winner, Tsung-Dao Lee considered chopsticks to be a brilliant invention for they are the extension of human hand and can function almost like the fingers. Moreover, more cultural connotations can be generated from the using of chopsticks. Holding the chopsticks and using them to eat require the inward force. From this, we can sense that Chinese culture is more conservative that expects people to be more reserved. Yet being reserved doesn’t necessary mean that we are free from aggressiveness, because Chinese need other ways to release the force. Through out the history, Chinese never lack the internal conflicts, which we call “Wo Li Dou” (internecine struggle). There were countless conflicts in loyal court in every dynasty, many of which were tragic. One of the extreme examples is Chiang Kai-shek’s policy made when Japanese invaded China. Chiang stuck to the policy that if Chinese were to resist foreign aggression, we must first get rid of the enemy within the nation. This policy proved to be self-destructive and led to the turmoil and catastrophe of the nation. We Chinese focus more on the internal relation rather than the external matters.
Unlike Chinese, the westerners use knife and fork as tableware. Knives were used at least two-and-a-half million years ago, as evidenced by the Oldowan2 tools. To lift the cut-up meat to mouth, westerner began to use fork alongside with knife. Cutting and stabbing are movements using the outward force, which also
indicates westerners’ tendency of outbound expansion. Interestingly, knife was invented by the western nomads to bring with them for cutting meat whenever they wanted to. The continent of Europe is rather small and surrounded by oceans, so the resource and land is limited. As a result, there was no soil for the farming civilization. Since they couldn’t find enough space for development within their country and even their continent, the westerners were eager to explore the outside world and extend their territory for more material wealth. For instance, during the “Great Discovery” of the 15th century, Europeans sailed around the globe and colonized many strange lands. The outbound aggression is reflected in their daily behaviors and utilities, including the tableware. Compared with Chinese, the westerners pay less attention to the internal contradictions.
1.3 Different Dining Atmosphere
In China, almost at every banquet, people would urge others to drink, fetch food for others and chat loudly. The lively atmosphere serves as a symbol of reunion. Urging others to drink is a necessity in China, for it shows the intimacy among people. If a person asks someone to drink a toast, the one being asked must respond positively and drink without any hesitation. The more a group of people drink, the closer is their relationship. Chatting is an essential part of the banquet, and everybody will join in it. Loud talking and laughing are rather common, though westerners may regard it to be rude and vulgar. Chinese hold that eating is the prior joy of life, so we should enjoy ourselves as much as possible during the meal. Being too elegant and quiet at the banquet can mean a distant relationship among people, because bosom friends and relatives should feel at
ease when sit together and express their affection by words and actions.
Nonetheless, the atmosphere at the banquet is different in the west. During the banquet, especially the one for business, people dress formally and behave carefully and gracefully. Loud talks and violent movements are regarded to be impolite. In addition, people never urge others to drink or eat and take care that they don't drink too much. Conversations are mainly carried out between the host and the guests, because the formal banquet is an occasion focusing on the communication between the two. Another form of meal different from the Chinese eating practice is the buffet. At a buffet, people can choose the food they like, go around and socialize with others. This kind of practice give people more freedom, while it may seem too apathy for the Chinese, for people don't get together as a whole. The dining atmosphere is actually a manifestation of the spirit of independence of the westerners. People treasure the individual autonomy and personal will more than the sense of community.
2. The underlying reasons for the differences
The eating customs and practices may sound trifle to many people, but we can recognize the cultural differences between China and the west. To be more exact, we see the different value of community of the two cultures.
The core of the Chinese culture is collectiveness. It means that every single person is a member of the community, who is an inseparable part of the whole. Since all members share the same will and characteristics, the interests and honor
of the community are also shared by the members. Therefore, personal will should be submitted to the will of the community. When the individual behave according to the common will of the community, the community must be responsible for the consequence of the behavior. The individual fate depends largely on that of the community. Even though dining seems to be a small thing, it is by no means a matter only concerning the individual. Consequently, Chinese people sit around the table and share food in the same plate to show their sense of community. If everyone order only what they like and eat separately, why do they get together? On the other hand, too much emphasis on the community may lead to the neglect of the individual will and dignity and suppress people’s willingness and passion for outward expansion and exploration. According to the materialistic dialectics, all substances are in constant movement. Now that the outbound movement is blocked, as it is reflected by the using of chopsticks, the internal movement —— conflict occurs.
However, the core of the western culture is individuality. Westerners believe that every person is an independent individual with his own will and characteristics. As a result, the individual should be responsible for his own behaviors and should pursue his own happiness all by himself. It is the same with dining. Everyone enjoys the freedom of choosing their own food and decides whether to drink or not, so long as they don’t do harm to others. No one can impose his will on other, such as force others to drink. In order to respect themselves and others, people act gracefully at the banquet to demonstrate their good cultivation. When there is less restrictions from the community, people like Columbus and Matteo Ricci3 can explore the outside world and fulfill their own ambitions. Yet, attaching too much
importance to individual may result in the alienation among people.
Undoubtedly, a person exists as an individual, as well as a member of the community. Every culture would admit both the individual and the community, but the different lies in that Chinese culture place priority on the community and the western culture value individual the most.
Conclusion
The catering culture is rich and abundant, which has surpassed a form for supporting human survival and reproduction. Different eating customs and practices can be analyzed through the differences in value of community between the west and China.
Firstly, the different ways of serving food has gone through a long historic process before it came into being, from which we realize the different priorities people from the two cultures put on individual and community. Secondly, the different tableware can be explain by the different focus of the people on the matter within the community and the world outside the community. Last but not least, the different dining atmosphere is determined by the distinct relations between individual will and the will of community.
In sum, the different eating customs and practices is the embodiment of different value of community. Chinese culture values collectiveness most, whereas western culture believes in individualism. Bearing this in mind, we can conduct
more efficient and sound communication with the westerners, thus we may contribute to the exchange between different cultures.
Notes
1Desiderius Erasmus was a Dutch Renaissance humanist and a Catholic priest and theologian. Erasmus was a classical scholar who wrote in a \"pure\" Latin style and enjoyed the sobriquet \"Prince of the Humanists.\"
2 The Oldowan, which was formerly often spelt Olduwan or Oldawan, is the archaeological term used to refer to the stone tool industry that was used by Hominins during the Lower Palaeolithic period.
3 Matteo Ricci, SJ (October 6, 1552 – May 11, 1610; simplified Chinese: 利玛窦; pinyin: Lì Mǎdòu; courtesy name: 西泰 Xītài) was an Italian Jesuit priest, and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China Mission, as it existed in the 17th-18th centuries. His current title is Servant of God.
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